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Western cultural move inspired past ancient Greece and Rome

Neoclassicism (also spelled Neo-classicism; from Greek νέος nèos, "new" and Greek κλασικός klasikόs, "of the highest rank")[1] was a Western cultural motion in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and compages that drew inspiration from the art and civilization of classical antiquity. Neoclassicism was born in Rome largely thanks to the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, at the time of the rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum, but its popularity spread all over Europe as a generation of European fine art students finished their Grand Tour and returned from Italy to their home countries with newly rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals.[2] [3] The main Neoclassical motion coincided with the 18th-century Historic period of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In compages, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th and up to the 21st century.

European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c. 1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Rococo fashion. Rococo architecture emphasizes grace, ornamentation and disproportion; Neoclassical compages is based on the principles of simplicity and symmetry, which were seen equally virtues of the arts of Rome and Ancient Greece, and were more immediately drawn from 16th-century Renaissance Classicism. Each "neo"-classicism selects some models amid the range of possible classics that are bachelor to it, and ignores others. The Neoclassical writers and talkers, patrons and collectors, artists and sculptors of 1765–1830 paid homage to an thought of the generation of Phidias, just the sculpture examples they actually embraced were more likely to be Roman copies of Hellenistic sculptures. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Tardily Antiquity. The "Rococo" art of aboriginal Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Wood's The Ruins of Palmyra. Even Greece was all-but-unvisited, a crude backwater of the Ottoman Empire, dangerous to explore, so Neoclassicists' appreciation of Greek compages was mediated through drawings and engravings, which subtly smoothed and regularized, "corrected" and "restored" the monuments of Greece, not always consciously.

The Empire style, a second phase of Neoclassicism in compages and the decorative arts, had its cultural eye in Paris in the Napoleonic era. Peculiarly in architecture, but also in other fields, Neoclassicism remained a forcefulness long after the early 19th century, with periodic waves of revivalism into the 20th and even the 21st centuries, especially in the U.s. and Russian federation.

History [edit]

Neoclassicism is a revival of the many styles and spirit of classic antiquity inspired directly from the classical catamenia,[4] which coincided and reflected the developments in philosophy and other areas of the Age of Enlightenment, and was initially a reaction against the excesses of the preceding Rococo style.[5] While the movement is oftentimes described as the opposed analogue of Romanticism, this is a great over-simplification that tends not to exist sustainable when specific artists or works are considered. The case of the supposed master champion of tardily Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well.[half dozen] The revival tin exist traced to the establishment of formal archæology.[7] [8]

The writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this move in both architecture and the visual arts. His books Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1750) and Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("History of Ancient Art", 1764) were the first to distinguish sharply between Ancient Greek and Roman art, and define periods within Greek art, tracing a trajectory from growth to maturity and so imitation or decadence that continues to have influence to the present twenty-four hour period. Winckelmann believed that art should aim at "noble simplicity and calm grandeur",[10] and praised the idealism of Greek fine art, in which he said nosotros find "not only nature at its near cute but also something beyond nature, namely certain ideal forms of its dazzler, which, as an ancient interpreter of Plato teaches usa, come from images created past the mind alone". The theory was very far from new in Western art, simply his emphasis on close copying of Greek models was: "The but style for united states to become swell or if this exist possible, inimitable, is to imitate the ancients".[xi]

With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many bully collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe.[12] "Neoclassicism" in each art implies a particular catechism of a "classical" model.

In English, the term "Neoclassicism" is used primarily of the visual arts; the similar movement in English language literature, which began considerably before, is called Augustan literature. This, which had been dominant for several decades, was outset to reject past the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became stylish. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was like. In music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and "Neoclassicism" is used of 20th-century developments. All the same, the operas of Christoph Willibald Gluck represented a specifically Neoclassical approach, spelt out in his preface to the published score of Alceste (1769), which aimed to reform opera by removing ornamentation, increasing the office of the chorus in line with Greek tragedy, and using simpler unadorned melodic lines.[13]

The term "Neoclassical" was not invented until the mid-19th century, and at the time the style was described by such terms every bit "the truthful fashion", "reformed" and "revival"; what was regarded as existence revived varying considerably. Ancient models were certainly very much involved, but the style could likewise be regarded as a revival of the Renaissance, and especially in France as a render to the more ascetic and noble Bizarre of the age of Louis Fourteen, for which a considerable nostalgia had adult as France's dominant armed services and political position started a serious decline.[xiv] Ingres's coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, to the disapproval of critics.

Neoclassicism was strongest in compages, sculpture and the decorative arts, where classical models in the same medium were relatively numerous and accessible; examples from ancient painting that demonstrated the qualities that Winckelmann's writing constitute in sculpture were and are lacking. Winckelmann was involved in the broadcasting of noesis of the first big Roman paintings to be discovered, at Pompeii and Herculaneum and, similar most contemporaries except for Gavin Hamilton, was unimpressed by them, citing Pliny the Younger's comments on the pass up of painting in his period.[15]

As for painting, Greek painting was utterly lost: Neoclassicist painters imaginatively revived it, partly through bas-relief friezes, mosaics and pottery painting, and partly through the examples of painting and ornamentation of the High Renaissance of Raphael's generation, frescos in Nero's Domus Aurea, Pompeii and Herculaneum, and through renewed adoration of Nicolas Poussin. Much "Neoclassical" painting is more classicizing in subject thing than in anything else. A fierce, but oft very desperately informed, dispute raged for decades over the relative claim of Greek and Roman fine art, with Winckelmann and his fellow Hellenists generally being on the winning side.[xvi]

Painting and printmaking [edit]

It is hard to recapture the radical and exciting nature of early Neoclassical painting for contemporary audiences; it now strikes fifty-fifty those writers favourably inclined to it every bit "insipid" and "almost entirely uninteresting to us"—some of Kenneth Clark'southward comments on Anton Raphael Mengs' ambitious Parnassus at the Villa Albani,[17] by the artist whom his friend Winckelmann described as "the greatest artist of his ain, and peradventure of later times".[18] The drawings, later turned into prints, of John Flaxman used very uncomplicated line drawing (thought to exist the purest classical medium[19]) and figures mostly in profile to depict The Odyssey and other subjects, and in one case "fired the creative youth of Europe" but are at present "neglected",[twenty] while the history paintings of Angelica Kauffman, mainly a portraitist, are described as having "an unctuous softness and tediousness" past Fritz Novotny.[21] Rococo frivolity and Baroque motion had been stripped away only many artists struggled to put anything in their identify, and in the absenteeism of ancient examples for history painting, other than the Greek vases used by Flaxman, Raphael tended to be used as a substitute model, as Winckelmann recommended.

The work of other artists, who could not easily be described equally insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a by and large Neoclassical manner, and form part of the history of both movements. The German-Danish painter Asmus Jacob Carstens finished very few of the large mythological works that he planned, leaving more often than not drawings and color studies which often succeed in approaching Winckelmann'southward prescription of "noble simplicity and calm grandeur".[22] Unlike Carstens' unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and assisting, and taken back past those making the Grand Tour to all parts of Europe. His main subject field matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modernistic. The somewhat disquieting temper of many of his Vedute (views) becomes ascendant in his series of sixteen prints of Carceri d'Invenzione ("Imaginary Prisons") whose "oppressive cyclopean architecture" conveys "dreams of fear and frustration".[23] The Swiss-born Johann Heinrich Füssli spent most of his career in England, and while his fundamental style was based on Neoclassical principles, his subjects and treatment more often reflected the "Gothic" strain of Romanticism, and sought to evoke drama and excitement.

Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the sensational success of Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a committee by the purple authorities, which David insisted on painting in Rome. David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and strength. The central perspective is perpendicular to the motion-picture show plane, made more emphatic by the dim arcade backside, against which the heroic figures are disposed as in a frieze, with a hint of the artificial lighting and staging of opera, and the classical colouring of Nicolas Poussin. David speedily became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politico with control of much government patronage in art. He managed to retain his influence in the Napoleonic menstruation, turning to bluntly propagandistic works, but had to leave France for exile in Brussels at the Bourbon Restoration.[24]

David's many students included Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, who saw himself as a classicist throughout his long career, despite a mature style that has an equivocal human relationship with the principal current of Neoclassicism, and many later diversions into Orientalism and the Troubadour way that are hard to distinguish from those of his unabashedly Romantic contemporaries, except by the primacy his works always requite to cartoon. He exhibited at the Salon for over 60 years, from 1802 into the beginnings of Impressionism, merely his style, once formed, changed picayune.[25]

  • The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately ane hundred steps . . .; by Giovanni Battista Piranesi; circa 1750; etching; size of the entire canvass: 33.5 × 49.four cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

  • Ancient Rome; past Giovanni Pauolo Panini; 1757; oil on sheet; 172.1 x 229.nine cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

  • Aqueduct in Ruins; by Hubert Robert; 18th century; oil on canvas; 81.6 10 137.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

  • Study for The Lictors Bringing Brutus the Bodies of his Sons; by Jacques-Louis David; 1787; chalk, ink, brush and grey and dark-brown wash, heightened with white gouache; sheet: 33.ii x 42.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

  • The Triumph of Aemilius Paulus; by Carle Vernet; 1789; oil on canvas; superlative; 129.9 x 438.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art

  • 11 February 1866 - Modern Romania; by Gheorghe Tattarescu; 1866; oil on paper-thin; 31.4 x 24 cm; private collection

Sculpture [edit]

If Neoclassical painting suffered from a lack of ancient models, Neoclassical sculpture tended to suffer from an excess of them, although examples of bodily Greek sculpture of the "classical menses" beginning in about 500 BC were then very few; the almost highly regarded works were mostly Roman copies.[26] The leading Neoclassical sculptors enjoyed huge reputations in their own day, but are now less regarded, with the exception of Jean-Antoine Houdon, whose work was mainly portraits, very often as busts, which exercise not cede a strong impression of the sitter's personality to idealism. His way became more classical equally his long career continued, and represents a rather shine progression from Rococo amuse to classical dignity. Dissimilar some Neoclassical sculptors he did not insist on his sitters wearing Roman wearing apparel, or being unclothed. He portrayed most of the notable figures of the Enlightenment, and travelled to America to produce a statue of George Washington, as well as busts of Thomas Jefferson, Ben Franklin and other founders of the new democracy.[27] [28]

Antonio Canova and the Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen were both based in Rome, and too equally portraits produced many ambitious life-size figures and groups; both represented the strongly idealizing tendency in Neoclassical sculpture. Canova has a lightness and grace, where Thorvaldsen is more than severe; the difference is exemplified in their respective groups of the Three Graces.[29] All these, and Flaxman, were still agile in the 1820s, and Romanticism was slow to impact sculpture, where versions of Neoclassicism remained the dominant style for most of the 19th century.

An early Neoclassicist in sculpture was the Swede Johan Tobias Sergel.[30] John Flaxman was also, or mainly, a sculptor, mostly producing severely classical reliefs that are comparable in style to his prints; he likewise designed and modelled Neoclassical ceramics for Josiah Wedgwood for several years. Johann Gottfried Schadow and his son Rudolph, one of the few Neoclassical sculptors to die immature, were the leading German artists,[31] with Franz Anton von Zauner in Austria. The late Bizarre Austrian sculptor Franz Xaver Messerschmidt turned to Neoclassicism in mid-career, soon before he appears to take suffered some kind of mental crunch, later which he retired to the country and devoted himself to the highly distinctive "character heads" of bald figures pulling extreme facial expressions.[32] Similar Piranesi's Carceri, these enjoyed a bully revival of interest during the age of psychoanalysis in the early on 20th century. The Dutch Neoclassical sculptor Mathieu Kessels studied with Thorvaldsen and worked most exclusively in Rome.

Since prior to the 1830s the United States did not have a sculpture tradition of its ain, save in the areas of tombstones, weathervanes and ship figureheads,[33] the European Neoclassical mode was adopted there, and it was to concur sway for decades and is exemplified in the sculptures of Horatio Greenough, Harriet Hosmer, Hiram Powers, Randolph Rogers and William Henry Rinehart.

  • Artemisia in mourning; by Philipp Jakob Scheffauer; 1794; marble; height: fifty.2 cm, width: xxx cm, depth: 5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

  • Perseus with the head of Medusa; by Antonio Canova; 1804–1806; marble; height: 242.vi cm, width: 191.8 cm, depth: 102.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

  • Filatrice; by Henry Kirke Brown; 1850; bronze; fifty.eight x thirty.5 x xx.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Architecture and the decorative arts [edit]

Neoclassical art was traditional and new, historical and modern, conservative and progressive all at the same fourth dimension.[35]

Neoclassicism first gained influence in England and France, through a generation of French art students trained in Rome and influenced by the writings of Winckelmann, and information technology was quickly adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden, Poland and Russia. At first, classicizing decor was grafted onto familiar European forms, as in the interiors for Catherine 2's lover, Count Orlov, designed past an Italian builder with a team of Italian stuccadori: only the isolated oval medallions like cameos and the bas-relief overdoors hint of Neoclassicism; the effects are fully Italian Rococo.

A second Neoclassic wave, more than severe, more than studied (through the medium of engravings) and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire. In France, the first phase of Neoclassicism was expressed in the "Louis Sixteen manner", and the second in the styles called "Directoire" or Empire. The Rococo style remained pop in Italy until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced as a political argument by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.[ co-ordinate to whom? ]

In the decorative arts, Neoclassicism is exemplified in Empire article of furniture made in Paris, London, New York, Berlin; in Biedermeier furniture fabricated in Austria; in Karl Friedrich Schinkel's museums in Berlin, Sir John Soane's Banking concern of England in London and the newly built "capitol" in Washington, D.C.; and in Wedgwood'due south bas reliefs and "black basaltes" vases. The style was international; Scots builder Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great, in Russian St. petersburg.

Indoors, Neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the belatedly 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s,[36] with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of Le Antichità di Ercolano (The Antiquities of Herculaneum). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that fifty-fifty the most classicizing interiors of the Bizarre, or the nearly "Roman" rooms of William Kent were based on basilica and temple exterior architecture turned exterior in, hence their frequently bombastic appearance to modernistic eyes: pedimented window frames turned into gilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary.

Techniques employed in the mode included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in depression frieze-like relief or painted in monotones en camaïeu ("similar cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques confronting backgrounds, peradventure, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colors. The style in France was initially a Parisian mode, the Goût grec ("Greek way"), not a court style; when Louis Xvi acceded to the throne in 1774, Marie Antoinette, his fashion-loving Queen, brought the "Louis Xvi" style to court. However, in that location was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman article of furniture until around the plow of the century, and furniture-makers were more probable to infringe from aboriginal architecture, just as silversmiths were more probable to accept from aboriginal pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen ... seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another".[37]

From nigh 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to Neoclassicism, the Greek Revival. At the aforementioned time the Empire mode was a more than grandiose wave of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of Napoleon in the First French Empire, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French land. The style corresponds to the more bourgeois Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Federal mode in the United States,[36] the Regency style in Britain, and the Napoleon style in Sweden. According to the art historian Hugh Award "so far from being, every bit is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neoclassical move, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back again into a mere antique revival, tuckered of all the high-minded ideas and forcefulness of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces".[38] An before phase of the manner was called the Adam manner in Corking Britain and "Louis Seize", or Louis XVI, in France.

Neoclassicism continued to exist a major force in bookish art through the 19th century and beyond—a constant antithesis to Romanticism or Gothic revivals —, although from the tardily 19th century on it had ofttimes been considered anti-mod, or even reactionary, in influential critical circles.[ who? ] The centres of several European cities, notably Leningrad and Munich, came to expect much similar museums of Neoclassical architecture.

Gothic revival architecture (often linked with the Romantic cultural movement), a style originating in the 18th century which grew in popularity throughout the 19th century, contrasted Neoclassicism. Whilst Neoclassicism was characterized by Greek and Roman-influenced styles, geometric lines and order, Gothic revival architecture placed an accent on medieval-looking buildings, often made to accept a rustic, "romantic" appearance.

France [edit]

Louis Sixteen fashion (1760-1789) [edit]

It marks the transition from Rococo to Classicism. Unlike the Classicism of Louis 14, which transformed ornaments into symbols, Louis 16 way represents them every bit realistic and natural as possible, ie laurel branches really are laurel branches, roses the aforementioned, and and so on. One of the chief decorative principles is symmetry. In interiors, the colours used are very vivid, including white, light grey, bright blue, pink, yellow, very calorie-free lilac, and gold. Excesses of decoration are avoided.[39] The return to artifact is synonymous with in a higher place all with a return to the straight lines: strict verticals and horizontals were the order of the day. Serpentine ones were no longer tolerated, salve for the occasional half circle or oval. Interior decor also honored this taste for rigor, with the result that flat surfaces and correct angles returned to fashion. Ornament was used to mediate this severity, but it never interfered with basic lines and ever was tending symmetrically around a central axis. Nonetheless, ébénistes ofttimes canted fore-angles to avoid excessive rigidity.[twoscore]

The decorative motifs of Louis XVI style were inspired past antiquity, the Louis XIV style, and nature. Characteristic elements of the mode: a torch crossed with a sheath with arrows, imbricated disks, guilloché, double bow-knots, smoking braziers, linear repetitions of small-scale motifs (rosettes, chaplet, oves), trophy or floral medallions hanging from a knotted ribbon, acanthus leaves, gadrooning, interlace, meanders, cornucopias, mascarons, Ancient urns, tripods, perfume burners, dolphins, ram and lion heads, chimeras, and gryphons. Greco-Roman architectural motifs are also very used: flutings, pilasters (fluted and unfluted), fluted balusters (twisted and straight), columns (engaged and unengaged, sometimes replaced by caryathids), volute corbels, triglyphs with guttae (in relief and trompe-l'œil).[41]

  • Clock in the shape of an ovoid vase with rotating dial; 1775–1780; gilt statuary, pigment on metal, and white marble; Louvre

  • Large vase; 1783; hard porcelain and golden bronze; height: 2 m, diameter: 0.ninety g; Louvre

  • Ewer; 1784–1785; silver; peak: 32.ix cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art

  • Fire screen (écran); circa 1786; carved, aureate and silvered beech; 18th-century silk brocade (not original to frame); 106.7 x 67.9 10 41.iii cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

  • Folding stool (pliant); 1786; carved and painted beechwood, covered in pink silk; 46.iv × 68.6 × 51.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art

  • Pair of vases; 1789; difficult-paste porcelain, gilt bronze, marble; pinnacle (each): 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

  • Armchair (fauteuil) from Louis 16'south Salon des Jeux at Saint Cloud; 1788; carved and aureate walnut, gold brocaded silk (not original); overall: 100 × 74.9 × 65.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Empire fashion (1804-1815) [edit]

It representative for the new French society that has exited from the revolution which fix the tone in all life fields, including art. The Jacquard car is invented during this period (which revolutionises the entire sewing system, manual until and so). One of the ascendant colours is cerise, busy with gilt bronze. Bright colours are also used, including white, cream, violet, brown, bleu, dark ruby, with little ornaments of gilded statuary. Interior architecture includes forest panels decorated with gilt reliefs (on a white background or a coloured one). Motifs are placed geometrically. The walls are covered in stuccos, wallpaper pr fabrics. Fireplace mantels are made of white marble, having caryatids at their corners, or other elements: obelisks, sphinxes, winged lions, then on. Bronze objects were placed on their tops, including mantel clocks. The doors consist of simple rectangular panels, decorated with a Pompeian-inspired central figure. Empire fabrics are damasks with a bleu or dark-brown background, satins with a green, pink or imperial background, velvets of the same colors, brooches broached with aureate or silver, and cotton wool fabrics. All of these were used in interiors for curtains, for covering certain article of furniture, for cushions or upholstery (leather is too used for upholstery).[43]

All Empire ornament is governed by a rigorous spirit of symmetry reminiscent of the Louis Xiv style. Generally, the motifs on a piece's right and left sides correspond to one another in every item; when they don't, the individual motifs themselves are entirely symmetrical in composition: antique heads with identical tresses falling onto each shoulder, frontal figures of Victory with symmetrically arrayed tunics, identical rosettes or swans flanking a lock plate, etc. Similar Louis XIV, Napoleon had a gear up of emblems unmistakably associated with his rule, most notably the eagle, the bee, stars, and the initials I (for Imperator) and N (for Napoleon), which were usually inscribed within an imperial laurel crown. Motifs used include: figures of Victory bearing palm branches, Greek dancers, nude and draped women, figures of antique chariots, winged putti, mascarons of Apollo, Hermes and the Gorgon, swans, lions, the heads of oxen, horses and wild beasts, butterflies, claws, winged chimeras, sphinxes, bucrania, sea horses, oak wreaths knotted by thin trailing ribbons, climbing grape vines, poppy rinceaux, rosettes, palm branches, and laurel. There's a lot of Greco-Roman ones: potent and flat acanthus leaves, palmettes, cornucopias, beads, amphoras, tripods, imbricated disks, caduceuses of Mercury, vases, helmets, burning torches, winged trumpet players, and ancient musical instruments (tubas, rattles and specially lyres). Despite their antique derivation, the fluting and triglyphs and so prevalent under Louis XVI are abandoned. Egyptian Revival motifs are peculiarly common at the beginning of the period: scarabs, lotus capitals, winged disks, obelisks, pyramids, figures wearing nemeses, caryatids en gaine supported by bare feet and with women Egyptian headdresses.[44]

  • Washstand (athénienne or lavabo); 1800–1814; legs, base of operations and shelf of yew wood, gilt-bronze mounts, atomic number 26 plate beneath shelf; height: 92.four cm, width: 49.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

  • Dress, based on Greco-Roman fashion; circa 1804; cotton fiber; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art

  • Desk chair (fauteuil de agency); 1805–1808; mahogany, gilt bronze and satin-velvet upholstery; 87.6 × 59.seven × 64.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

  • Clock with Mars and Venus; circa 1810; gilded bronze and patina; height: 90 cm; Louvre

  • Pair of candelabra with Winged Victories; 1810–1815; gilded statuary; height (each): 127.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art

  • Rug; 1814–1830; 309.9 × 246.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

The United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland [edit]

Adam mode [edit]

The Adam style was created by 2 brothers, Adam and James, who published in 1777 a book of etchings with interior ornamentation. In the interior ornament fabricated later on Robert Adam's drawings, the walls, ceilings, doors, and whatever other surface, are divided into big panels: rectangular, round, foursquare, with stuccos and Greco-Roman motifs at the edges. Ornaments used include festoons, pearls, egg-and-dart bands, medallions, and whatever other motifs used during the Classical antiquity (especially the Etruscan ones). Decorative fittings such equally urn-shaped stone vases, golden silverware, lamps, and stauettes all take the aforementioned source of inspiration, classical artifact.

The Adam way emphasizes refined rectangular mirrors, framed like paintings (in frames with stylised leafs), or with a pediment above them, supporting an urn or a medallion. Some other design of Adam mirrors is shaped like a Venetian window, with a big fundamental mirror betwixt ii other thinner and longer ones. Another type of mirrors are the oval ones, usually busy with festoons. The furniture in this way has a like construction to Louis Xvi furniture.[46]

  • Rectangular mirror with a minor urn at the top; by Robert Adam; 1765; carved and painted pino and glass; overall: 355.half dozen × 190.five cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

  • Interior of Syon House (London) with Ionic columns and gilded statues, 1767-1775, by Robert Adam

  • Dining room of Syon House, with a complex ceiling

  • Carpeting; by Robert Adam; 1770–1780; knotted wool; 505.v 10 473.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art

  • Urn on pedestal; circa 1780 with latter additions; by Robert Adam; inlaid mahogany; superlative: 49.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art

  • Side tabular array with many acanthus leafs and two bucrania; by Robert Adam; circa 1780 with later addition; mahogany; overall: 88.six × 141.iii × 57.i cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art

The United States [edit]

Federal mode [edit]

On the American continent, architecture and interior decoration have been highly influenced by the styles developed in Europe. The French taste has highly marked its presence in the southern states (after the French Revolution some emigrants have moved here, and in Canada a big part of the population has French origins). The practical spirit and the material state of affairs of the Americans at that time gave the interiors a typic temper. All the American furniture, carpets, tableware, ceramic, and silverware, with all the European influences, and sometimes Islamic, Turkish or Asian, were made in conformity with the American norms, gustation, and functional requirements. At that place have existed in the United states a period of the Queen Anne style, and an Chippendale one. A fashion of its own, the Federal manner, has developed completely in the 18th and early 19th centuries, which has flourished being influenced past Britannic taste. Under the impulse of Neoclassicism, architecture, interiors, and furniture have been created. The mode, although it has numerous characteristics which differ from state to state, is unitary. The structures of architecture, interiors, and furniture are Classicist, and incorporate Baroque and Rococo influences. The shapes used include rectangles, ovals, and crescents. Stucco or wooden panels on walls and ceilings reproduce Classicist motifs. Furniture tend to be decorated with floral marquetry and bronze or brass inlays (sometimes aureate).[47]

  • Candlestand; 1790-1800; mahogany, birch, and various inlays; 107 10 49.21 10 48.9 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

  • Writing desk; 1790-1810; satinwood, mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine; 153.67 x 90.17 x 51.44 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

  • Armchair; maybe past Ephraim Haines; 1805-1815; mahogany and pikestaff; meridian: 84.77 cm, width: 52.07 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

  • Iv-column pedestal carte table with pineapple finial; 1815-1820; mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine forest; 74.93 ten 92.71 x 46.67 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Gardens [edit]

In England, Augustan literature had a direct parallel with the Augustan way of landscape pattern. The links are clearly seen in the work of Alexander Pope. The best surviving examples of Neoclassical English gardens are Chiswick House, Stowe House and Stourhead.[48]

Neoclassicism and fashion [edit]

In fashion, Neoclassicism influenced the much greater simplicity of women's dresses, and the long-lasting way for white, from well before the French Revolution, but it was non until afterwards it that thorough-going attempts to imitate aboriginal styles became fashionable in France, at to the lowest degree for women. Classical costumes had long been worn past stylish ladies posing every bit some figure from Greek or Roman myth in a portrait (in detail there was a rash of such portraits of the young model Emma, Lady Hamilton from the 1780s), but such costumes were only worn for the portrait sitting and masquerade assurance until the Revolutionary menstruation, and perhaps, similar other exotic styles, as undress at habitation. Only the styles worn in portraits by Juliette Récamier, Joséphine de Beauharnais, Thérésa Tallien and other Parisian tendency-setters were for going-out in public besides. Seeing Mme Tallien at the opera, Talleyrand quipped that: "Il n'est pas possible de south'exposer plus somptueusement!" ("One could not exist more than sumptuously undressed"). In 1788, just before the Revolution, the court portraitist Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun had held a Greek supper where the ladies wore plain white Grecian tunics.[49] Shorter classical hairstyles, where possible with curls, were less controversial and very widely adopted, and hair was now uncovered fifty-fifty outdoors; except for evening clothes, bonnets or other coverings had typically been worn even indoors before. Thin Greek-style ribbons or fillets were used to necktie or decorate the hair instead.

Very light and loose dresses, usually white and often with shockingly blank arms, rose sheer from the talocrural joint to just below the bodice, where there was a strongly emphasized sparse hem or tie round the body, often in a different colour. The shape is now often known as the Empire silhouette although it predates the First French Empire of Napoleon, but his first Empress Joséphine de Beauharnais was influential in spreading it around Europe. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, very often plain red but with a busy edge in portraits, helped in colder weather, and was apparently laid effectually the midriff when seated—for which sprawling semi-recumbent postures were favoured.[50] By the outset of the 19th century, such styles had spread widely beyond Europe.

Neoclassical fashion for men was far more problematic, and never really took off other than for pilus, where it played an important role in the shorter styles that finally despatched the utilize of wigs, and then white hair-powder, for younger men. The trouser had been the symbol of the barbaric to the Greeks and Romans, only outside the painter's or, especially, the sculptor's studio, few men were prepared to carelessness information technology. Indeed, the period saw the triumph of the pure trouser, or pantaloon, over the culotte or articulatio genus-breeches of the Ancien Régime. Even when David designed a new French "national costume" at the asking of the government during the tiptop of the Revolutionary enthusiasm for changing everything in 1792, information technology included adequately tight leggings under a coat that stopped above the human knee. A high proportion of well-to-do young men spent much of the key flow in military service because of the French Revolutionary Wars, and military uniform, which began to emphasize jackets that were brusque at the front, giving a full view of tight-fitting trousers, was often worn when not on duty, and influenced noncombatant male styles.

The trouser-trouble had been recognised past artists as a barrier to creating gimmicky history paintings; like other elements of contemporary dress they were seen as irredeemably ugly and unheroic by many artists and critics. Various stratagems were used to avoid depicting them in modern scenes. In James Dawkins and Robert Woods Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758) by Gavin Hamilton, the two gentleman antiquaries are shown in toga-similar Arab robes. In Watson and the Shark (1778) by John Singleton Copley, the main figure could plausibly be shown nude, and the limerick is such that of the eight other men shown, simply one shows a single breeched leg prominently. Yet the Americans Copley and Benjamin Due west led the artists who successfully showed that trousers could exist used in heroic scenes, with works similar West'southward The Death of General Wolfe (1770) and Copley'southward The Expiry of Major Peirson, 6 January 1781 (1783), although the trouser was notwithstanding being carefully avoided in The Raft of the Medusa, completed in 1819.

Classically inspired male hair styles included the Bedford Ingather, arguably the precursor of most plainly modern male styles, which was invented by the radical pol Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford as a protest against a tax on hair powder; he encouraged his friends to adopt it by betting them they would non. Another influential style (or group of styles) was named by the French "à la Titus" after Titus Junius Brutus (not in fact the Roman Emperor Titus as often assumed), with pilus curt and layered but somewhat piled upwardly on the crown, oft with restrained quiffs or locks hanging downward; variants are familiar from the hair of both Napoleon and George IV of the Great britain. The fashion was supposed to have been introduced by the actor François-Joseph Talma, who upstaged his wigged co-actors when actualization in productions of works such as Voltaire'due south Brutus (nigh Lucius Junius Brutus, who orders the execution of his son Titus). In 1799 a Parisian fashion magazine reported that even baldheaded men were adopting Titus wigs,[51] and the style was also worn by women, the Journal de Paris reporting in 1802 that "more than than one-half of elegant women were wearing their pilus or wig à la Titus.[52]

Later Neoclassicism [edit]

In American architecture, Neoclassicism was one expression of the American Renaissance movement, ca. 1890–1917; its last manifestation was in Beaux-Arts architecture, and its final large public projects were the Lincoln Memorial (highly criticized at the time), the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. (too heavily criticized by the architectural community every bit existence backward thinking and former fashioned in its design), and the American Museum of Natural History's Roosevelt Memorial. These were considered stylistic anachronisms when they were finished. In the British Raj, Sir Edwin Lutyens' monumental city planning for New Delhi marks the dusk of Neoclassicism. Globe War 2 was to shatter about longing for (and simulated of) a mythical fourth dimension.

Conservative modernist architects such as Auguste Perret in French republic kept the rhythms and spacing of columnar architecture fifty-fifty in manufactory buildings. Where a pillar would have been decried as "reactionary", a building's pilaster-like fluted panels under a repeating frieze looked "progressive". Pablo Picasso experimented with classicizing motifs in the years immediately following World State of war I, and the Fine art Deco style that came to the fore following the 1925 Paris Exposition des Arts Décoratifs, often drew on Neoclassical motifs without expressing them overtly: severe, blocky commodes by É.-J. Ruhlmann or Süe & Mare; crisp, extremely low-relief friezes of damsels and gazelles in every medium; fashionable dresses that were draped or cut on the bias to recreate Grecian lines; the art trip the light fantastic toe of Isadora Duncan; the Streamline Moderne styling of U.South. mail offices and canton court buildings built as belatedly as 1950; and the Roosevelt dime.

There was an unabridged 20th-century movement in the Arts which was likewise chosen Neoclassicism. Information technology encompassed at least music, philosophy and literature. It was between the end of World War I and the end of Globe State of war II. (For information on the musical aspects, run across 20th-century classical music and Neoclassicism in music. For information on the philosophical aspects, see Not bad Books.)

This literary Neoclassical motion rejected the farthermost romanticism of (for instance) Dada, in favour of restraint, religion (specifically Christianity) and a reactionary political program. Although the foundations for this movement in English literature were laid by T. Eastward. Hulme, the most famous Neoclassicists were T. Due south. Eliot and Wyndham Lewis. In Russia, the movement crystallized every bit early as 1910 under the proper name of Acmeism, with Anna Akhmatova and Osip Mandelshtam equally the leading representatives.

In music [edit]

Neoclassicism in music is a 20th-century motility; in this case it is the Classical and Baroque musical styles of the 17th and 18th centuries, with their fondness for Greek and Roman themes, that were being revived, not the music of the aboriginal world itself. (The early on 20th century had not even so distinguished the Bizarre period in music, on which Neoclassical composers mainly drew, from what we now call the Classical flow.) The movement was a reaction in the first part of the 20th century to the disintegrating chromaticism of belatedly-Romanticism and Impressionism, emerging in parallel with musical Modernism, which sought to abandon cardinal tonality birthday. Information technology manifested a want for cleanness and simplicity of way, which allowed for quite dissonant paraphrasing of classical procedures, but sought to blow away the cobwebs of Romanticism and the twilit glimmerings of Impressionism in favour of bold rhythms, assertive harmony and clean-cut sectional forms, coinciding with the faddy for reconstructed "classical" dancing and costume in ballet and concrete education.

The 17th-18th century trip the light fantastic suite had had a minor revival before Globe War I but the Neoclassicists were non altogether happy with unmodified diatonicism, and tended to emphasise the bright racket of suspensions and ornaments, the angular qualities of 17th-century modal harmony and the energetic lines of countrapuntal part-writing. Respighi'south Ancient Airs and Dances (1917) led the way for the sort of sound to which the Neoclassicists aspired. Although the practice of borrowing musical styles from the past has not been uncommon throughout musical history, art musics accept gone through periods where musicians used modern techniques coupled with older forms or harmonies to create new kinds of works. Notable compositional characteristics are: referencing diatonic tonality, conventional forms (dance suites, concerti grossi, sonata forms, etc.), the idea of accented music untramelled by descriptive or emotive associations, the use of light musical textures, and a conciseness of musical expression. In classical music, this was most notably perceived between the 1920s and the 1950s. Igor Stravinsky is the all-time-known composer using this manner; he effectively began the musical revolution with his Bach-similar Octet for Air current Instruments (1923). A particular individual work that represents this style well is Prokofiev's Classical Symphony No. 1 in D, which is reminiscent of the symphonic style of Haydn or Mozart. Neoclassical ballet as innovated by George Balanchine de-chaotic the Russian Imperial fashion in terms of costume, steps and narrative, while also introducing technical innovations.

Architecture in Russia and the Soviet Union [edit]

In 1905–1914 Russian architecture passed through a brief just influential menstruum of Neoclassical revival; the trend began with recreation of Empire style of alexandrine period and quickly expanded into a variety of neo-Renaissance, Palladian and modernized, yet recognizably classical schools. They were led by architects born in the 1870s, who reached creative height earlier World War I, like Ivan Fomin, Vladimir Shchuko and Ivan Zholtovsky. When economy recovered in the 1920s, these architects and their followers continued working in primarily modernist environment; some (Zholtovsky) strictly followed the classical canon, others (Fomin, Schuko, Ilya Golosov) developed their own modernized styles.[53]

With the crackdown on architects independence and official deprival of modernism (1932), demonstrated by the international contest for the Palace of Soviets, Neoclassicism was instantly promoted as ane of the choices in Stalinist compages, although not the merely selection. It coexisted with moderately modernist architecture of Boris Iofan, bordering with contemporary Art Deco (Schuko); once again, the purest examples of the style were produced past Zholtovsky school that remained an isolated phenomena. The political intervention was a disaster for constructivist leaders yet was sincerely welcomed by architects of the classical schools.

Neoclassicism was an easy pick for the USSR since it did non rely on modern structure technologies (steel frame or reinforced concrete) and could be reproduced in traditional masonry. Thus the designs of Zholtovsky, Fomin and other old masters were easily replicated in remote towns under strict material rationing. Comeback of construction engineering science after World War Ii permitted Stalinist architects to venture into skyscraper construction, although stylistically these skyscrapers (including "exported" architecture of Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw and the Shanghai International Convention Eye) share niggling with the classical models. Neoclassicism and neo-Renaissance persisted in less enervating residential and office projects until 1955, when Nikita Khrushchev put an end to expensive Stalinist architecture.

Architecture in the 21st century [edit]

Afterward a lull during the catamenia of modern architectural dominance (roughly post-World War II until the mid-1980s), Neoclassicism has seen something of a resurgence.

As of the beginning decade of the 21st century, gimmicky Neoclassical architecture is usually classed under the umbrella term of New Classical Architecture. Sometimes information technology is too referred to every bit Neo-Historicism or Traditionalism.[54] Too, a number of pieces of postmodern compages draw inspiration from and include explicit references to Neoclassicism, Antigone District and the National Theatre of Catalonia in Barcelona among them. Postmodern architecture occasionally includes historical elements, similar columns, capitals or the tympanum.

For sincere traditional-style compages that sticks to regional compages, materials and craftsmanship, the term Traditional Compages (or vernacular) is by and large used. The Driehaus Architecture Prize is awarded to major contributors in the field of 21st century traditional or classical architecture, and comes with a prize coin twice as high as that of the modernist Pritzker Prize.[55]

In the The states, various contemporary public buildings are built in Neoclassical style, with the 2006 Schermerhorn Symphony Centre in Nashville being an example.

In Britain, a number of architects are active in the Neoclassical fashion. Examples of their work include two university libraries: Quinlan Terry'due south Maitland Robinson Library at Downing Higher and Robert Adam Architects' Sackler Library.

Run across likewise [edit]

  • 1795–1820 in Western fashion
  • American Empire (style)
  • Antiquization
  • Nazi architecture
  • Neoclassicism in French republic
  • Neo-Grec, the late Greek-Revival style
  • Skopje 2014

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ "Etymology of the English word "neo-classical"". myetymology.com. Retrieved 2016-05-09 .
  2. ^ Stevenson, Angus (2010-08-19). Oxford Lexicon of English. ISBN9780199571123.
  3. ^ Kohle, Hubertus (August 7, 2006). "The road from Rome to Paris. The nascence of a modern Neoclassicism". Jacques Louis David. New perspectives.
  4. ^ Irwin, David Thou. (1997). Neoclassicism A&I (Art and Ideas) . Phaidon Press. ISBN978-0-7148-3369-ix.
  5. ^ Award, 17-25; Novotny, 21
  6. ^ A recurring theme in Clark: nineteen-23, 58-62, 69, 97-98 (on Ingres); Accolade, 187-190; Novotny, 86-87
  7. ^ Lingo, Estelle Cecile (2007). François Duquesnoy and the Greek ideal. Yale University Press; First Edition. pp. 161. ISBN978-0-300-12483-5.
  8. ^ Talbott, Page (1995). Classical Savannah: fine & decorative arts, 1800-1840. University of Georgia Press. p. 6. ISBN978-0-8203-1793-9.
  9. ^ Cunningham, Reich, Lawrence South., John J. (2009). Civilisation and values: a survey of the humanities. Wadsworth Publishing; 7 edition. p. 104. ISBN978-0-495-56877-3.
  10. ^ Honour, 57-62, 61 quoted
  11. ^ Both quotes from the beginning pages of "Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture"
  12. ^ Dyson, Stephen L. (2006). In Pursuit of Ancient Pasts: A History of Classical Archaeology in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Yale Academy Press. pp. xii. ISBN978-0-300-11097-5.
  13. ^ Honour, 21
  14. ^ Honor, 11, 23-25
  15. ^ Honour, 44-46; Novotny, 21
  16. ^ Honor, 43-62
  17. ^ Clark, 20 (quoted); Honour, xiv; epitome of the painting (in fairness, other works by Mengs are more successful)
  18. ^ Laurels, 31-32 (31 quoted)
  19. ^ Honour, 113-114
  20. ^ Honour, 14
  21. ^ Novotny, 62
  22. ^ Novotny, 51-54
  23. ^ Clark, 45-58 (47-48 quoted); Honour, l-57
  24. ^ Honour, 34-37; Clark, 21-26; Novotny, nineteen-22
  25. ^ Novotny, 39-47; Clark, 97-145; Honour, 187-190
  26. ^ Novotny, 378
  27. ^ Novotny, 378–379
  28. ^ Chinard, Gilbert, ed., Houdon in America Arno PressNy, 1979, a reprint of a volume published past Johns Hopkins University, 1930
  29. ^ Novotny, 379-384
  30. ^ Novotny, 384-385
  31. ^ Novotny, 388-389
  32. ^ Novotny, 390-392
  33. ^ Gerdts, William H., American Neo-Classic Sculpture: The Marble Resurrection, Viking Press, New York, 1973 p. 11
  34. ^ ART ● Compages ● Painting ● Sculpture ● Graphics ● Blueprint. 2011. p. 313. ISBN978-1-4454-5585-3.
  35. ^ Palmer, Alisson Lee. Historical lexicon of neoclassical art and compages. p. ane.
  36. ^ a b Gontar
  37. ^ Honor, 110–111, 110 quoted
  38. ^ Award, 171–184, 171 quoted
  39. ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 200, 201 & 202.
  40. ^ Sylvie, Chadenet (2001). French Furniture • From Louis XIII to Fine art Deco. Little, Brown and Company. p. 71.
  41. ^ Sylvie, Chadenet (2001). French Article of furniture • From Louis XIII to Art Deco. Little, Brown and Company. p. 72.
  42. ^ "Corner Cabinet - The Fine art Institute of Chicago".
  43. ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanaian). Cerces. pp. 217, 219, 220 & 221.
  44. ^ Sylvie, Chadenet (2001). French Furniture • From Louis Xiii to Art Deco. Footling, Chocolate-brown and Company. p. 103 & 105.
  45. ^ Odile, Nouvel-Kammerer (2007). Symbols of Power • Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style • 1800-1815. p. 209. ISBN978-0-8109-9345-7.
  46. ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 253, 255 & 256.
  47. ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 269, 270, & 271.
  48. ^ Turner, Turner (2013). British gardens: history, philosophy and blueprint, Affiliate 6 Neoclassical gardens and landscapes 1730-1800. London: Routledge. p. 456. ISBN978-0415518789.
  49. ^ Hunt, 244
  50. ^ Hunt, 244-245
  51. ^ Hunt, 243
  52. ^ Rifelj, 35
  53. ^ "The Origins of Modernism in Russian Architecture". Content.cdlib.org. Retrieved 2012-02-12 .
  54. ^ "Neo-classicist Architecture. Traditionalism. Historicism".
  55. ^ Driehaus Prize for New Classical Architecture at Notre Dame SoA – Together, the $200,000 Driehaus Prize and the $50,000 Reed Award represent the virtually significant recognition for classicism in the contemporary built environment.; retained March 7, 2014

References [edit]

  • Clark, Kenneth, The Romantic Rebellion: Romantic versus Classic Art, 1976, Omega. ISBN 0-86007-718-seven.
  • Honour, Hugh, Neo-classicism. Style and Civilization 1968 (reprinted 1977), Penguin
  • Gontar, Cybele, "Neoclassicism", In Heilbrunn Timeline of Fine art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000– online
  • Hunt, Lynn, "Freedom of Dress in Revolutionary France", in From the Royal to the Republican Body: Incorporating the Political in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century France, Editors: Sara East. Melzer, Kathryn Norberg, 1998, University of California Printing, 1998, ISBN 0520208072,9780520208070
  • Fritz Novotny, Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780–1880, second edition (reprinted 1980).
  • Rifelj, Carol De Dobay, Coiffures: Hair in Nineteenth-Century French Literature and Culture, 2010, University of Delaware Press, ISBN 0874130999, 9780874130997, google books

Further reading [edit]

  • Brownish, Kevin (2017). Artist and Patrons: Courtroom Art and Revolution in Brussels at the end of the Ancien Regime, Dutch Crossing, Taylor and Francis
  • Eriksen, Svend. Early on Neoclassicism in France (1974)
  • Friedlaender, Walter (1952). David to Delacroix (originally published in German; reprinted 1980)
  • Gromort, Georges, with introductory essay by Richard Sammons (2001). The Elements of Classical Architecture (Classical America Series in Fine art and Architecture)
  • Harrison, Charles; Paul Wood and Jason Gaiger (eds) (2000; repr. 2003). Art in Theory 1648–1815: An Album of Changing Ideas
  • Hartop, Christopher, with foreword by Tim Knox (2010). The Classical Platonic: English Silver, 1760–1840, exh. cat. Cambridge: John Adamson ISBN 978-0-9524322-nine-6
  • Irwin, David (1966). English Neoclassical Art: Studies in Inspiration and Taste
  • Johnson, James William. "What Was Neo-Classicism?" Journal of British Studies, vol. 9, no. i, 1969, pp. 49–70. online
  • Rosenblum, Robert (1967). Transformations in Late Eighteenth-Century Art

External links [edit]

  • Neoclassicism in the "History of Fine art"
  • "Neoclassicism Way Guide". British Galleries. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2007-07-17 .
  • Neo-classical drawings in the Flemish Art Collection
  • 19th Century Sculpture Derived From Greek Hellenistic Influence: Jacob Ungerer
  • The Neoclassicising of Pompeii

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